SITREP: The modernisation of Spain’s land forces

Spain is pursuing an ambitious modernisation programme for its land forces, aiming to ensure they meet the demands of future battlefields by 2035. However, financial constraints may hinder these plans. So far, there are no indications that Spain will increase its defence spending.

Funding military modernisation requires substantial financial resources, and Spain is not among the leaders in this regard. In 2024, Spain allocated approximately 1.28% of its GDP to defence – one of the lowest figures in NATO. This is somewhat understandable, given that Spain is geographically distant from Russia and faces no immediate conventional military threats. Instead, its most pressing security challenge is the surge in illegal migration from North Africa, which continues to break records. According to official reports, a record number of 64,000 migrants reached Spain in 2024, including over 43,000 migrants who arrived in the Canary Islands. On the other hand, Spain’s low defence spending raises questions about its credibility as an ally and its overall usefulness within NATO.

Despite its low defence expenditure, Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez reaffirmed his support for the EU’s ‘ReArm Europe’ defence initiative in mid-March 2025. He argued that the current international climate — marked by Russia’s threat to Central and Eastern Europe and evolving US policies — presents an opportunity to reindustrialise Spain and the continent. During his visit to Finland on 12 March 2025, Sánchez reiterated his commitment to increasing defence spending to 2% of GDP by 2029.

However, at present Sánchez’s statements appear to be little more than rhetoric. On the international stage, he has declared a willingness to raise defence spending, fully aware that such an increase is unlikely. At the same time, he has assured the Spanish public that any potential boost to the defence budget will not come at the expense of his social programmes. He also lacks the support to push an increase to defence spending through Spain’s parliament, where he does not hold a majority. Furthermore, defence spending hikes have faced resistance from both Sanchez’ coalition partners as well as opposition parties, who have question both the feasibility and timing of his proposed budget increase.

Spain’s Fuerza 2035 modernization programme

In January 2024, Spanish Defence Minister María Margarita Robles emphasised the need for more advanced technologies to ensure that the Spanish military meets the demands of modern warfare. At the heart of this effort is the Fuerza 2035 programme, a long-term initiative aimed at transforming the Spanish Armed Forces (Fuerzas Armadas de España), with a planning horizon extending beyond 15 years. The Fuerza 2035 project was officially launched in 2018 by the Spanish Ministry of Defence, with concrete implementation efforts beginning in subsequent years.

Fuerza 2035 focuses on the land forces (Ejército de Tierra), aiming to modernise their structure, equipment, and operational capabilities. However, the other branches — the Air and Space Force (Ejército del Aire y del Espacio) and the Navy (Armada Española) — are also undergoing technological modernisation and structural, as well as doctrinal transformation. Ejército de Tierra is set to evolve from the ‘Force of the Possible’ (Fuerza Posible) in 2018-2024 to the ‘Advanced Force’ (Fuerza Avanzada) between 2024 and 2030, before ultimately becoming the ‘Force of Superiority’ (Fuerza de Ventaja) between 2030 and 2035. The Fuerza de Ventaja stage is expected to provide operational superiority, ensuring full integration of modern systems, interoperability with allies, and readiness for future challenges. The future Ejército de Tierra will leverage artificial intelligence (AI) and a wide range of unmanned systems, including unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), and unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) platforms — from micro-UAVs to medium-altitude long endurance (MALE), and high-altitude long endurance (HALE) UAVs, along with strike UAVs.

The Fuerza 2035 programme is based on the assumption that the future security and defence environment will undergo significant changes. A key aspect will be increased competition between states, while non-state actors will continue to proliferate. To achieve their objectives, some adversaries will extensively utilise the latest technologies, avoiding direct confrontation. However, the possibility of a high-intensity conventional conflict cannot be ruled out.

The Spanish military is expected to be capable of operating successfully across the entire spectrum of conflict, from supporting civil authorities to engaging in non-linear battlefields and high-intensity urban combat against conventional enemies. The force will be highly expeditionary and maintain a high state of readiness, with a reduced personnel footprint thanks to the integration of new technologies.

Spain has been developing the Brigada 2035 concept to create technologically advanced ground forces with the combat power, protection, and capabilities necessary to operate in future conflict scenarios. This unit serves as a reference model for Spain’s future land forces. The ‘Rey Alfonso XIII’ Brigade of the Legion, based in Almería, has been designated as the Experimental Brigade (BRIEX) 2035. This unit is responsible for analysis, lessons learned, and the development of concepts, doctrines, and procedures.

Brigada 2035 will consist of 2,800–3,000 soldiers, organised into three Combat Groups (Grupos de Combate), capable of independent operations, and a Brigade Troops Core (NTB – Núcleo de Tropas de Brigada), serving as the brigade’s central command and support structure. Each Combat Group will be the size of a reinforced infantry battalion. Brigada 2035 will also include an artillery group (Grupo de Artillería), an engineering battalion, a logistics group, a cavalry group, an intelligence, surveillance, target acquisition, and reconnaissance (ISTAR) unit, a communications unit, and other specialised units. The NTB will play a crucial role in integrating and coordinating all operational support units necessary for conducting joint warfare within the brigade.

Tanks

Regarding armoured units, Spain operates both Leopard 2A4 and Leopard 2E tanks. The latter is an upgraded export variant of the Leopard 2A6. Spain currently has 219 Leopard 2Es, produced between 2001 and 2008, but due to their age, they no longer fully meet the requirements of the modern battlefield. As for the 2A4 variant, these tanks were acquired through the Programa Coraza 2000, designed to replace the French AMX-30 as well as US-made M47 and M48 tanks. Approximately 79 A4s are in active service from a total of 108 tanks that were originally bought from Germany in the late 1990s — first leased and later purchased. In 2012, around 50 Spanish 2A4s were placed in storage due to financial constraints, while 29 were recently transferred to Ukraine.

Madrid plans to modernise its existing Leopard 2E fleet by 2029. The majority of the Leopard 2E fleet was produced locally by Santa Bárbara Sistemas between 2003 and 2008 – though the initial 30 tanks were produced by the then-KMW (not KNDS Deutschland) at its Munich facility – and features improvements such as the LINCE battle management system and thermal imaging optics developed by Indra. Planned upgrades will enhance command, control, communications, firepower, mobility, protection, and maintenance. The tanks are expected to receive a laser warning receivers, upgraded optoelectronics, multispectral camouflage, an improved main gun (presumably the Rh120 L55A1), an active protection system (APS), and a remote weapon station (RWS). The upgraded Leopard 2E+ is expected to remain in service until the future Main Ground Combat System (MGCS) becomes available.

Beyond the Leopard 2E modernisation programme, the Ejército de Tierra is preparing to phase out its obsolete Leopard 2A4s. These are expected to be replaced by the Leopard 2A8, a variant still under development by KNDS Deutschland. The 2A8 builds upon the Leopard 2A7 and, according to the manufacturer, features enhanced armour protection for the hull front and turret face, which can be supplemented with various optional packages, including a roof armour package. The 2A8 is armed with the Rh120 L55A1 120 mm smoothbore gun, offering increased pressure (700 MPa) compared to the earlier Rh 120 L55 model (670 MPa). This can be supplemented by an optional RWS. A key upgrade is the integration of the Trophy APS, which has also been tested on the 2A7 variant. The 2A8 retains the 1,119 kW (1,500 hp) power pack of earlier variants, supplemented by a 20 kW auxiliary power unit (APU) to permit a ‘silent watch’ capability and ultracapacitors.

The armoured forces modernisation plan was officially announced in January 2025 during the International Armoured Vehicles Conference 2025 (IAV 2025) in Farnborough, UK. Spain also intends to replace its current support vehicles, including armoured engineering vehicles (AEVs) and armoured vehicle launched bridges (AVLBs), based on the M60 platform. Madrid is actively seeking to maximise the participation of the Spanish defence industry in both projects – the modernisation of the Leopard 2E and the acquisition of the Leopard 2A8.

Armoured vehicles

One of the key modernisation programmes for Spain’s land forces remains the production of a new multi-role wheeled platform. The VCR (Vehículo de Combate sobre Ruedas) Dragón, an 8×8 wheeled vehicle family based on the GDELS-Mowag Piranha V design, expected to replace Spain’s ageing wheeled armoured vehicles. Specifically, Dragón will phase out two vehicle types designed by the now-defunct company Pegaso in Barcelona: the BMR-M1 (6×6) and the VEC/VEC-M1 (6×6). The former, with a fleet of nearly 700 units, has been in service with the Spanish Army since the late 1970s, while the latter (340 units) is only a few years younger.

The Dragón is presented by both the Spanish military and the local defence industry as a flagship project. It is not only intended to provide the armed forces with a modern vehicle in multiple variants, but also to serve as a crucial component in the growth of Spain’s defence sector. In short, the Dragón is expected to become a cornerstone of Spain’s future military (Fuerza 2035). Undoubtedly, it has the potential to achieve this, as it is the most modern wheeled vehicle ever fielded by the country. The manufacturer highlights its versatility, high resistance to explosive devices, mobility, modular armour, and autonomy, allowing it to operate independently for over 48 hours.

The Dragón will be available in six variants (down from the 13 variants originally planned), including an infantry fighting vehicle (VCI), a cavalry reconnaissance vehicle (VEC), a fire observation vehicle (VCOAV), a battalion command post vehicle (VCPC), an armoured recovery vehicle (VREC), and a combat engineering vehicle (VCZ). While Spain has yet to decide whether the DRAGÓN family will be equipped with an active protection system (APS), all variants will be fitted with advanced electronics, including onboard mission management systems developed by Indra.

Production of VCR Dragón vehicles for the Spanish Army began in late 2021, although initial plans had projected deliveries starting as early as 2014. In reality, the first batch was completed only on 20 December 2022, when the GDELS-Santa Bárbara Sistemas (GDELS-SBS) factory in Alcalá de Guadaíra, Andalusia, delivered seven serial production vehicles along with five technology demonstrators in three different variants. The first production tranche includes 348 vehicles, with a contract value exceeding EUR 2 billion, originally scheduled for completion by 2027. However, this is only the beginning — due to the need to replace all ageing vehicles, Madrid has planned two additional tranches: 365 vehicles between 2026–2030 and 287 vehicles between 2031–2035, bringing the total planned investment in the Dragón programme to EUR 3.8 billion.

It is already clear that the original schedule will not be met. In 2024, Tess Defence (the consortium responsible for manufacturing the VCR Dragón) was supposed to deliver 94 vehicles, yet not a single unit has been handed over to the Ejército de Tierra. According to Spanish sources, the vehicles failed to meet operational requirements. Reported issues include excessive weight, which exceeds the payload capacity of the A400M transport aircraft, and dimensional constraints. In September 2024, Madrid-based newspaper La Información Económica reported that the Spanish Ministry of Defence fined Indra, SAPA, and GDELS-SBS EUR 9 million for delays. Defence Minister Margarita Robles has voiced her “great concern” over “the lack of progress and the level of compliance” in the Dragón programme.

Other vehicles

One of the key modernisation projects is the second phase of the Pizarro tracked armoured vehicle programme. During Phase I, Spain procured 144 vehicles, including 123 Pizarro IFVs in the VCI/C (Vehículo de Combate Infantería/Caballería) configuration and 21 VCPC (Vehículo de Puesto de Mando) command post vehicles. Phase II aims to equip the Spanish Army with additional vehicles, including specialised variants for engineering units. While Spain initially planned to acquire 212 vehicles, financial constraints ultimately reduced the total number to 117, comprising 81 VCI/C IFVs and 36 VCZ (Vehículo de Combate de Zapadores) engineering combat vehicles.

Deliveries under Phase II began in December 2015 with the delivery of 10 VCI/C Pizarro Fase II vehicles. In December 2023, the Ejército de Tierra received its first batch of six VCZ Castor tracked engineering vehicles from GDELS-SBS; this was followed by a further four in December 2024. The deliveries were part of a contract for 36 vehicles for Spain’s sapper units, under Pizarro Phase II. The Castor is based on the ASCOD 2 platform (related to the original ASCOD used for Ulan/Pizarro) and is powered by an MTU 8V 199 TE20 turbocharged diesel engine developing 537 kW (720 hp), produced by Navantia Motores, coupled to a SAPA SG850 automatic transmission.

The Fuerza 2035 programme also envisions a Phase III. According to official documents, additional infantry and cavalry vehicles will be acquired, with enhanced capabilities to integrate ISTAR data, unmanned systems, and network connectivity with other vehicles and dismounted units. However, official technical specifications and delivery schedules for Phase III have not yet been published.

The same lack of details applies to another component of Fuerza 2035 – the introduction of an entire family of unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs). These will include weapon carriers, chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN) reconnaissance vehicles, medical evacuation platforms, troop and cargo transporters, engineering vehicles, and armoured recovery vehicles (ARVs). Research in this field is being carried out under the ESCORPION programme, which aims to develop a family of remotely operated wheeled and tracked UGVs. Notably, in 2021, reports emerged about a collaboration between GDELS-SBS and Sener Aeroespacial to develop a remote driving system for Pizarro vehicles, both in combat (VCI/C) and engineering (Castor) configurations. This innovation would allow operations in hazardous environments without exposing soldiers to direct risks.

In contrast, more details are available regarding the replacement of Spain’s fleet of M113 tracked vehicles, of which approximately 1,000 remain in service. Madrid plans to acquire the VAC (Vehículo de Apoyo de Cadenas) tracked support vehicles, to be manufactured by the TESS Defence consortium. The VAC is based on the ASCOD 2 platform, and in its first phase, 394 vehicles will be acquired in multiple specialised variants, including self-propelled mortars, armoured personnel carriers (APCs), command vehicles, fire support vehicles, medical evacuation vehicles, and technical support vehicles. The VAC will also incorporate an active protection system (APS) and share several electronic systems with the VCR Dragón family.

Artillery

Spain has very ambitious plans for modernising its artillery. According to Fuerza 2035, Brigada 2035 is expected to have an organic artillery group consisting of three batteries of 155 mm calibre guns, either towed or self-propelled, with a range exceeding 50 km, along with one battery of multiple-launch rocket systems (MLRSs) with long-range and high-mobility capabilities, providing a range of 120-130 km. By 2035, fire support capabilities are expected to extend up to 500 km, based on guided hypersonic rockets and missiles. Spain also plans to acquire tactical radars, various drones (including loitering munitions), and mobile acoustic location networks. Purportedly, electromagnetic guns, and hypersonic missiles are also under consideration.

In 2024, Madrid announced a project to purchase 145 self-propelled howitzers (SPHs). The acquisition will include 36 wheeled and 109 tracked howitzers. The goal of this programme is to replace the US-made M109 tracked SPHs currently in service. Spain presently has approximately 96 M109 A5E SPHs and various towed guns, including 82 GDELS-SBS 155/52 APU-SIAC (155 mm) and 56 L118A1 (105 mm). In late 2023, GDELS-SBS was awarded a EUR 15.7 million contract for the maintenance of its 155/52 APU-SIAC guns. A full upgrade and repair programme will cost over EUR 36 million.

Regarding the procurement of 145 new howitzers, these are expected to have barrel lengths between 47 and 52 calibres, with a range exceeding 40 km using base-bleed ammunition. It is worth noting that in mid-2024, GDELS–SBS announced the reactivation of its ability to produce large-calibre gun barrels. This move responds to the increased demand for artillery systems. The barrels will be produced again at the Trubia facility, owned by GDELS-SBS.

In 2023, Spain signed a EUR 700 million contract with Israeli company Elbit Systems to acquire a single PULS MLRS fire module. This purchase is part of the SILAM (Sistema Lanzador de Alta Movilidad) programme, which aims to acquire MLRS capable of striking targets at ranges up to 300 km. Spain will receive 12 mobile launchers, 12 munition supply vehicles, ten command-and-control vehicles, two technical evacuation vehicles, and six reconnaissance vehicles. In terms of munitions, apart from 216 training rounds with a range of 15 km, Spain will acquire 288 rockets with a range of 35 km, 112 rockets with a range of 150 km, and 64 rockets with a range of 300 km. The ammunition procurement will cost EUR 414 million.

At the same time, Spain’s land forces are increasing their capabilities through the acquisition of mortars. Madrid will purchase 84 EIMOS 81 mm mortars from Rheinmetal Expal Munitions for EUR 150 million (the contract also covers maintenance and training), with deliveries due to be completed by 2027. The EIMOS system, which can be mounted on a standard 4×4 vehicle, will be used by all branches of the Spanish military.

Air defence

Future Spanish forces will be equipped with very short- and short-range air defence systems (V/SHORAD), including anti-aircraft guns capable of targeting helicopters and small UAVs at very low altitudes. In order to enhance air defence capabilities, Fuerza 2035 plans to introduce hybrid cannon/missile self-propelled anti-aircraft gun and missile (SPAAGM) vehicles on an 8×8 wheeled platform, and potentially using a 35 mm cannon armament. The system will feature its own radar, optical tracking, and targeting systems, making it suitable for defence against aircraft, helicopters, UAVs, and even various missiles.

In May 2024, Kongsberg was awarded a contract worth EUR 410 million to deliver the NASAMS II+ air defence system. This is a fairly recent variant which will enable, among other improvements, the use of AMRAAM-ER missiles with a range of 40 km. The purchase aims to fill the gap left by divestment of MBDA’s SPADA 2000 system, which was sent to Ukraine. Currently, Spain has four NASAMS batteries, with two launchers per battery; in May 2024, Madrid requested a EUR 45 million modernisation programme for the system. At the same time, Spain will procure a replacement for its I-HAWK systems, which were also donated to Ukraine. By July 2024, Madrid requested PATRIOT PAC-3 MSE missiles and related support equipment. Spain will be the 15th PAC-3 MSE user, with a contract worth EUR 2.4 billion.

Robert Czulda