Amphibious armoured vehicles for marine infantry: Enhancing capabilities with next-generation technology

Several nations are introducing next-generation armoured amphibious vehicles, preserving the capability to conduct amphibious assault operations if required.

While the last major amphibious assault was conducted during the Korean War, the major powers maintained strong amphibious capabilities throughout the Cold War, and continue to do so today. Numerous regional powers also recognise the value of retaining this option, which offer different approaches to amphibious operations. Options include landing vehicles or dismounted personnel by landing craft or boat, or airlifting them from ship to shore via helicopter.

The most demanding scenarios require launching amphibious-capable armoured vehicles from specialised warships which remain well seaward from the surf zone (open ocean deployment). Once on land, these vehicles serve as armoured transports and fighting vehicles, providing mobility and protection for the embarked marine infantry. Many armed forces currently utilise amphibious armoured vehicles which were designed decades ago. Next-generation vehicles are now entering service or being developed in several leading nations.

Amphibious Combat Vehicle (ACV)

The US Marine Corps (USMC) is replacing its 1970s-era Assault Amphibious Vehicle (AAV7A1) with the Amphibious Combat Vehicle (ACV), which self-launches from the well-deck of amphibious ships in open ocean waters. In addition to ship-to-shore operations, the ACV will conduct shore-to-shore manoeuvres. In other words, once landed the vehicle can re-enter the water and move laterally along the coast or cross bays and inlets to reach another landing point. This independence from ships for local redeployment is particularly relevant for distributed littoral operations, ‘island hopping’ and expeditionary advanced base operations (EABO) scenarios in the Indo-Pacific theatre. Full rate production (FRP) was authorised in December 2020. The original procurement goal of 1,122 was reduced to 632 in 2023 to align with overall force structure changes. The 300th unit was delivered to the USMC in August 2025.

The 32 tonne 8×8 ACV is designed and produced by BAE Systems in partnership with Iveco Defence Vehicles, and is derived from the Iveco SuperAV design. The blast-resistant armoured hull provides mine, IED, kinetic energy (KE), and overhead protection as well as an automatic fire suppression system. Top road speed is 105 km/h; in the water it reaches 11 km/h (6 kn). The Iveco H-Drive System delivers all-wheel traction both on land and in the surf zone. Maximum range from ship to shore is 22.2 km (12 NM), followed by circa 400 km on land. The ship-to-shore range is less than that of the AAV7, reflecting the USMC’s doctrinal shift regarding over-the-horizon launch of amphibious vehicles. Given the increasing capabilities of modern shore-based weapon systems, the Navy-Marine Corps planners concluded that they would need to maintain a 185.2 km (100 NM) range from the landing zone, which is not achievable for amphibious vehicles. The 12 NM standard was accepted as adequate for intercepting incoming anti-ship missiles while reducing the time vehicles are subject to the dangers of ocean transit.

Performance and safety

While the Corps notes that the new vehicle offers much improved performance and survivability on land, stability in the water has emerged as an issue. As a wheeled vehicle with a V-shaped hull, the ACV has less reserve buoyancy and different displacement than the tracked, flat-bottomed AAV7. The length-to-width ratio of the ACV, at circa 3:1, is also somewhat less favourable for stability than the AAV7’s 2.5:1 ratio. According to BAE Systems, the ACV can operate in conditions up to Sea State 3 and through a 2.75 m (9 ft) plunging surf. However, following mishaps during training in 3.7 m plunging surf in 2022, the USMC imposed an interim limit of 1.25 m breaker height for safe operations. In September 2024, the USMC codified the new Assault Amphibian Training and Operating Procedures Standardization manual, which – until further notice – restricts operations to open ocean and to protected waters (such as harbours or basins) but prohibits transit of the more dangerous surf zone. These restrictions have been maintained during repeated overseas exercises involving the ACV since 2024. To be precise, the USMC continues to express confidence in the vehicle and its ultimate deployability. The mishaps are attributed to an early failure to recognise “significant differences between the safe operating procedures of the ACV and its predecessor”, according to an April 2023 USMC statement. A dedicated transition training unit is developing new operational guidelines and procedures as well as training standards in order to ensure safe and effective handling during future real-world missions.

Mission variants

Four ACV variants are planned; most require a three-person vehicle crew consisting of commander, driver and gunner.

The personnel carrier variant (ACV-P) can carry 16 personnel (3 crew and 13 Marine dismounts) and two days of combat equipment and supplies. It mounts a remote weapon station (RWS) with either a 12.7 mm heavy machine gun (HMG) or a 40 mm automatic grenade launcher (AGL), and is designed to accommodate additional direct and indirect fire weapons in the future. Initial operational capability (IOC) of the ACV-P variant was declared in November 2020.

The command-and-control Variant/C2 (ACV-C) accommodates seven battle staff personnel. Mission systems include a modular digital network vetronics system, a battle management system, and a digital Satcom HF/VHF communications suite. The vehicle integrates the Target Handoff System Version 2.0 (THSv2), a tablet-based fire support/targeting solution which plugs into the vehicle’s C2/communications system to digitally transmit target data to artillery, mortars, naval gunfire, and close air support platforms. The THSv2 can also integrate with the Army/USMC AFATDS (Advanced Field Artillery Tactical Data System) to coordinate fire support operations. A 7.62 mm MG is mounted for self-defence. IOC was declared in October 2024.

The ACV-30 fire support variant is equipped with a 30 mm Mk44 Bushmaster II chain gun mounted in a stabilised Kongsberg RT-20 remote controlled turret; the main gun is augmented by a coaxial M240 machine gun (7.62 mm). In addition to infantry targets, it can defeat unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) with airburst munitions and can fire armour-piercing rounds to engage light to medium armoured vehicles including some infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs). There is planned growth potential for active and passive protective systems as well as missile and rocket integration. The ACV-30 accommodates 11 personnel (3 crew and 8 dismounts). The first FRP order for the ACV-30 was placed in April 2025. IOC is anticipated in the 3rd Quarter of FY2026.

The recovery variant (ACV-R) will provide battlefield maintenance and recovery capabilities to the assault amphibious battalions. It will be equipped with an extensible rotating crane, a heavy-duty winch, a battlefield welding and cutting kit and a 7.62 mm MG. The ACV-R will have two vehicle crew plus two maintenance personnel. Three production representative test units are expected to be delivered in FY2026, with planned IOC in early FY2028.

Zaha Marine Assault Vehicle (MAV)

Türkiye is acquiring the Zaha marine assault vehicle (MAV) for the Amphibious Marine Brigade. Produced by FNSS Savunma Sistemleri, the 30 tonne tracked vehicle is designed to launch from amphibious assault ships during the beach-landing phase of amphibious operations, transporting marine infantry to shore under armour protection at circa 13 km/h (7 kn) speeds via twin waterjet propulsion. The manufacturer states that the vehicle offers seaborne, land-to-sea and shore-to-shore capabilities, and can handle Sea State 4. The Zaha’s specific range from ship to shore is classified and has not been made public. As explained by an FNSS spokesperson, the vehicles are qualified based on a combination of sea and land performance; the overall operational range officially recorded for ZAHA is 700 km. FNSS emphasises the stability of the completely sealed, flat-bottomed vehicle hull during the waterborne phase, including the capability to self-right in case of capsizing during harsh sea conditions. Once on land, the Zaha can reach road speeds of 70 km/h and has a range of 500 km. It is intended to operate in conjunction with main battle tanks (MBTs) and other mechanised combat vehicles.

The MAV is currently deployed on the Turkish Navy’s Landing Helicopter Dock (LHD) TCG Anadolu. The first public imagery of the Zaha in action was filmed by the MoD during a national-level naval training exercise in June 2023 when the MAVs self-deployed from the Anadolu’s well deck and manoeuvred to the beach, where they provided over for additional forces arriving in landing craft and by helicopter. The first multinational MAV deployment took place during NATO exercise Sea Wolf in January 2024.

Configuration

The on-board offensive weapon system consists of a stabilised remote controlled ÇAKA turret (which FNSS first developed specifically for the Zaha) mounting a 12.7 mm HMG and 40 mm AGL as well as two banks of smoke grenade launchers. The turret features 360° seamless traverse and includes thermal sights for day and night operations. The aluminium hull’s baseline defensive suite consists of passive ballistic and mine protection in line with STANAG 4569 standards (the precise level is classified), and includes automated fire suppression and CBRN suppression. Applique armour can be added to meet higher threat levels. The personnel carrier variant (APC) which forms the core of the MAV family of vehicles has a three-person crew plus room for 18 combat-equipped marine dismounts who egress via a rear-mounted hydraulic ramp. A manual door is embedded into the rear hatch to permit egress in case of a hydraulic failure.

A total of 27 MAV units were delivered to the Turkish armed forces by the end of April 2023. This represents the entire first tranche, consisting of 23 units of the armoured personnel carrier variant and two each of the C2 and recovery vehicle variants. FNSS states that the base vehicle can also be configured for additional variants including combat engineering and battlefield support, although to date there have been no orders for these specialised units. A fourth variant, optimised for mine breaching, has also been developed under the scope of the MAV Programme.

The firm is also offering upgraded combat capability for the amphibious armoured vehicle. FNSS presented two up-armed MAVs at the IDEF 2025 exhibition in Istanbul. Each featured a different modified variant of the ÇAKA turret. Both new configurations enhance the vehicle’s anti-armour capabilities up to and including defeat of MBTs.

The Çaka 30/AT-O turret is equipped with a low-recoil 30 mm Venom LR automatic cannon produced by Samsun Yurt Savunma, plus two Roketsan OMTAS long-range anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs). The Venom LR is chambered in the 30 mm × 113 cartridge, has an effective range of 2,000 m and can fire armour-piercing and high-explosive munitions. The OMTAS can defeat armoured targets at ranges up to 4,000 m.

The lighter weight ÇAKA-AT-K turret mounts a 12.7 mm machine gun plus two Roketsan Karaok fire-and-forget ATGMs with 2,500 m range. FNSS states that both new turret variants are at Technology Readiness Level 7 (TRL 7).

Future sales

The Turkish armed forces are in the process of expanding their Marine Corps from its current strength (roughly equivalent to a reinforced brigade) to an end strength of three brigades. While the MoD has not publicly confirmed plans to purchase a second tranche of MAVs, additional orders are widely expected in order to support the expanding force structure; the Turkish press is describing such an order as pending. In that context, there is speculation that a second order might include additional variants such as a mine-clearing system or the anti-armour fire-support vehicles. Additionally, FNSS is actively marketing the Zaha MAV for the export market. The firm has cited interest from potential buyers in the Middle East and in the archipelago-rich Southeast Asia region, with Qatar and Indonesia being mentioned by name.

Korean Amphibious Armoured Vehicle (KAAV)

The Republic of Korea Marine Corps (ROKMC) currently operates the KAAV71A, also known as the Korean Amphibious Armoured Vehicle I (KAAV I) which is based on the American AAV7.  The vehicle was built under licence by Hanwha Defense and delivered in the 1990s to early 2000s. Since 2015, Hanwha has been pursuing a purely domestic research and development programme to develop a successor, to be designated the KAAV II. The Korean Agency for Defence Development (ADD) awarded the firm a development contract in November 2018. ADD describes the KAAV II as being “capable of high-speed maritime operations that allow marine forces to be quickly moved from landing ships to inland target areas. KAAV2 enables marine forces to carry out cooperative operations with mechanised forces during land operations by providing mobility, firepower and armour.” The Defense Acquisition Program Administration (DAPA) formally approved acquisition of the KAAV II in September 2021.

Hanwha presented a scale model at the 2019 Aerospace and Defence Exposition ADEX in Seoul. According to statements made by Hanwha to Shepard Media during ADEX 2019, the tracked vehicle will measure circa 9 m long and fall in the 35-tonne weight class. It will have a crew of three and accommodate 18 dismounts (other sources including Korean graphics available online cite 20 or 21 dismounts). An unmanned turret will mount a 40 mm S&T Dynamics cannon capable of firing case-telescoped ammunition including armour-piercing fin-stabilised discarding sabot (APFSDS) rounds. The cannon will be supplemented by a 12.7 mm HMG.

Improvements over the currently deployed KAAV I will include lighter-weight but superior-performance composite armour, modern digital systems, and improved water mobility. Hanwha partnered with Soucy Defense to develop new composite rubber tracks (CRTs) which will propel the vehicle at 70 km/h on land, and which will rotate in shallow water to assist the large-diameter twin rear-mounted waterjets. During open ocean operations, three-stage trim vanes at the front and rear improve buoyancy and reduce resistance. Additionally, side-flaps descend to cover the underside of the tracks during open ocean operations to provide a smoother surface. During ADEX 2019, Hanwha’s KAAV II Program Group team leader cited an anticipated top speed approaching 13.5 kt or 24 km/h, roughly double that of the KAAV I. These statements were refined in a Hanwha press release at the June 2023 MADEX Maritime and Defence Exposition in Busan, which cited an objective speed of circa 20 km/h in the water.

At the time of the MADEX 2023 event, the KAAV II had completed the exploratory development phase (2018–2022) and entered the system development phase, which was slated to run 2023–2028. The firm projected that mass production would begin in 2029, implying a likely IOC in the early 2030s. However, the programme suffered a fatal prototype accident in September 2023 when two Hanwha Aerospace employees died when the prototype sank during testing off the coast of Pohang. At the time, South Korean media speculated that the incident investigation could delay development and entry into service. Neither the Korean government nor Hanwha have provided an updated timeline for development and serial production.

Future Amphibious Technology – Research (FAT-R)

While Japan does not maintain a marine corps, it did establish the Amphibious Rapid Deployment Brigade (ARDB) as a formation of the Japanese Ground Self-Defense Force (JGSDF). The ARDB was created in 2018 in response to the Chinese wartime threat to what is collectively known as the Ryukyu Islands, (also known as the Nansei Islands), a chain of some 200 islands stretching south-westerly from Kyushu towards Taiwan. The unit is tasked with conducting full-scale amphibious warfare, coastal defence, and rapid response operations to retake islands which have been occupied by an enemy. It was established with advice and support of the USMC, with which it trains on a regular basis. To enable amphibious landing operations, the brigade acquired refurbished and upgraded AAV7 vehicles from the USMC. For amphibious assault or landing operations the AAV7s are launched from the well deck of Osumi class tank landing ships (LST), which are frequently compared functionally to dock landing ships (LSD).

Given the AAV7’s age and limitations, these vehicles were always considered an interim solution. Japan’s Acquisition, Technology & Logistics Agency (ATLA) initiated the Future Amphibious Technology Research (FAT-R) programme in 2017 to prepare for a ‘next generation’ successor to the AAV7. Mitsubishi Heavy Industries (MHI) was selected as industry leader to design and develop a prototype manned vehicle. Few details have been publicly revealed to date. The objective amphibious vehicle will definitely need to exceed the AAV7’s 13 km/h (7 kn) water speed to minimise exposure during the water phase of operations. Another major concern specifically for Japan is the ability to overcome the coral reefs which form a barrier to many of the Nansei islands. A combination of twin 1,118.5 kW (1,500 hp) water jet propulsion assisted by rubber tracks, both driven by a very powerful 2,237 kW (3,000 hp) MHI V12 engine has been described as the optimal solution to the coral reef issue, according to a briefing on Japanese military modernisation presented during the January 2024 International Armoured Vehicles Conference in Twickenham, London. During an April 2025 interview with Naval News, Lieutenant Colonel Seiichirō Satō, commander of the ARDB’s Combat Landing Battalion, added a third priority. Describing the AAV7’s 40 mm AGL as inadequate for combatting light armoured vehicles, he expressed hope for “a minimum” of a 30 mm autocannon on the new vehicle.

ATLA has not declared a firm timetable for the programme. MHI’s vehicle programme is currently in the prototyping phase. If technical and operational testing take place during the late 2020s, the new amphibious armoured vehicle could enter service in the early 2030s.

Loyal amphibious wingman?

To augment the manned successor to the AAV7, Japan is also developing an unmanned amphibious vehicle. Japanese MoD documents cite two primary missions for the unmanned vehicles: acting as an advance force for manned amphibious armoured vehicles during assaults against defended beaches; and subsequently conducting supply runs from offshore ships to ground units operating on islands. As with the manned vehicle being developed, the autonomous system will be optimised for crossing the coral reef line. Once on the beach it will switch from water to land mode in order to seek out friendly units located inland. The MoD’s “Defense of Japan 2025″ white paper confirmed that development had begun in FY2024. Previous MoD documents have presented a precise schedule for the programme, with development in FY2024–2026, testing in FY2026–2027, and initial fielding as of FY2028.

Japan is not the only nation considering an unmanned ‘wingman’ for manned amphibious armoured vehicles. Rheinmetall’s Mission Master unmanned ground vehicle (UGV) has repeatedly demonstrated amphibious capabilities over the course of 2025, most recently at NATO’s REPMUS (Robotic Experimentation and Prototyping using Maritime Uncrewed Systems) exercise in Portugal during September. A Mission Master 2.0 modified for this purpose by Rheinmetall Canada was lowered by crane from a warship off the Portuguese coast and autonomously traversed the ocean and surf zone to land safely on the beach. Earlier in the year, Mike Brooks, director of Business Development for American Rheinmetall Vehicles, discussed the USMC’s testing of the Mission Master’s suitability for amphibious operations on the coast. Brooks emphasised the retractable propeller and two fold-down sponsons on either side which enable the amphibious capability. The robotic vehicle can be deployed for logistics, reconnaissance, medevac and weapons-platform missions, a versatility well suited to marine infantry operations.

The fact that Japan and various NATO members are independently pursuing this capability is a strong indicator that in the future, advanced manned amphibious armoured vehicles will be supported by capable unmanned systems, improving both lethality and survivability for marine infantry forces.

Sidney E. Dean