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Unmanned surface vessels (USVs) are well-suited to Russia’s constrained naval reality in the Black Sea theatre: they’re cheap, scalable, and uncrewed. After suffering numerous losses to Ukraine’s indigenous USVs, Russia has rapidly developed multiple designs and established specialised units to deploy them. The era of Russian sea drones looks to have begun, despite significant technical hurdles ahead.

Learning from the Ukrainian Masters

On 28 August 2025, the medium reconnaissance Ukrainian Ship Simferopol was struck in the Danube delta, allegedly by a high-speed uncrewed surface vessel (USV).[1] The vessel sustained damage, with one crew member killed and two others wounded.[2] Russian sources claimed that the ship had been sunk, a statement that Ukrainian officials denied (see Figure 1).[3] The attack happened only a few weeks after Russian USVs were operationally tested in the Baltic Sea during the exercise ‘July Storm’.[4] This event marks the effective entry of Russian sea drones into the battlespace as their only previous employment was reported in the attack on the Zatoka bridge, South of Odesa, in February 2023.[5] However, the development of Russian sea drones should not come as a surprise. These naval assets are well aligned within Russia’s broader naval approach and Ukraine itself has demonstrated their effectiveness on the battlefield in multiple occasions, making them leaders in one-way attack (OWA) USV development and employment.

Figure 1: Ukrainian Ship Simferopol struck in the Danube delta area. [Giangiuseppe Pili]
Figure 1: Ukrainian Ship Simferopol struck in the Danube delta area. [Giangiuseppe Pili]
Mainly driven by the lack of a strong conventional navy, Ukraine has invested heavily in the development of asymmetric capabilities to counter the Russian Black Sea fleet. The loss of the guided cruiser Moskva marked a watershed moment.[6] After the early months of the war, the Ukrainian Navy increasingly relied on specially developed USVs to attack Russian naval vessels and infrastructure in the Black Sea. The first recorded operation dates back to October 2022, when Ukraine employed several USVs and Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) to conduct multiple attacks against naval vessels, including the Admiral Makarov, and infrastructure near the Crimean port of Sevastopol.[7] In the following months, the number of attacks increased, targeting ships of various size, from patrol boats,[8] tankers,[9] and corvettes,[10] to large amphibious assault ships,[11] and allegedly even downing rotary wing aircraft.[12] Moreover, USVs have also been used to strike the Kerch bridge[13] and in mining operations (see Figure 2).[14]

Figure 2: A size comparison of the German Imperial Navy’s 1915 Fernlenkboote to the Ukrainian 2023 Magura V3 USV. [Giangiuseppe Pili]
Figure 2: A size comparison of the German Imperial Navy’s 1915 Fernlenkboote to the Ukrainian 2023 Magura V3 USV. [Giangiuseppe Pili]
As a result, the Russian Black Sea Fleet was forced to withdraw from Crimean Peninsula and relocate its assets to Novorossiysk[15] and Ochamchire, in Abkhazia.[16] It also had to shift the bulk of its operations toward the eastern part of the Black Sea. As early as March 2024, the British Ministry of Defence described the Russian Black Sea Fleet as “functionally inactive”.[17] Moreover, losing control over the basin also affected land operations, given the critical role of the maritime domain within Russia’s logistics and supply systems.[18] However, with this new weapon system now battle-tested, Russian research and development efforts were well-positioned to absorb some of the lessons from the Ukrainian side.

Moscow’s adaptation and USV development

Around the beginning of Russia’s 2022 full-scale invasion of Ukraine, the Russian military structure struggled to adapt due to the over-centralisation of command & control, including in research and development. However, over time, the Russian armed forces began to display significant changes spanning from the tactical to the strategic level,[19] including in the field of UAV warfare.[20] Notably, Russia initiated structural reforms aimed at acquiring USV capabilities.

In December 2024, the Russian Minister of Defence, Andrei Belousov, explicitly stated the need to establish a new branch of the armed forces, the Unmanned Systems Forces, in the third quarter of 2025, with a scope extending beyond aerial systems.[21] In April 2025, the Foreign Intelligence Service of Ukraine reported the creation of a new interdepartmental technical council within the Russian Ministry of Defence, primarily intended to develop “unmanned systems and technology for maritime application”.[22] The following month, the Russian Navy announced the establishment of specialised units dedicated to the employment of various types of unmanned systems, including UAVs, USVs, unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs) and unmanned ground vehicles (UGVs).[23]

The first recorded Russian employment of unmanned boat dates back to the last decade, when the French ECA Group’s Inspector Mk2 Drones were assigned to the Alexandrit class minehunter ships.[24] However, following the imposition of sanctions by the US Office of Foreign Assets Control (OFAC), the Inspector series were no longer offered to Russia. Consequently, in 2017, Russian company ‘Science and Production Enterprise Air and Marine Electronics’ (NPP AME), started the development of the Iskatel’ series, strongly resembling and aimed at replacing the Inspector Mk2.[25]

Prior to this, in 2016 ZALA Aero, a Kalashnikov-subsidiary known for developing UAVs, announced the ongoing development of a several tens of meters-long catamaran known as ‘Triton’, equipped with machine guns and capable of carrying smaller aerial drones.[26] However, it is unclear whether the system design proceeded beyond the project phase. The Armiya-2018 exhibition was the stage for the presentation of the BUK-600, a USV equipped with solar panels, a gasoline-powered generator, and a hydrogen fuel cell; together these three sources supplied a battery which in turn powered the vessel.[27] The unmanned craft can patrol, search for targets, and pursue them.[28] Another USV design named Skanda, developed by Mnev and Co. Shipbuilding, seems to have been tested in the same period.[29]

At the Armiya-2023 exhibition, the Saint-Peterburg based Kingisepp Machine-Building Plant (KMZ), sanctioned by OFAC since June 2024,[30] revealed the prototype of the GRK 700 ‘Vizir’[31]. With a length of 7 m and beam of 2.5 m,[32] the vessel may reach a maximum speed of 80 km/h and has a maximum range of 600 km, although its range decreases to a maximum of 200 km once loaded with its maximum payload of 500 kg.[33] According to KMZ director Mikhail Danilenko, “The boat has the ability to be modified for various tasks: attack naval drone, liquidator of such drones, delivery of troops and cargo”.[34]

In December 2023, KMZ unveiled other two USVs, the BBKN (in Russian: ‘High-Speed Unmanned Carrier Boat’), and the Oduvanchnik.[35] According to RIA Novosti, KMZ director Danilenko, stated that this was the first unmanned boat produced for direct requirements of the Russian MoD.[36] The BBKN can reach 80 km/h, it has a range of 200 km and a payload capacity of 600 kg.[37] Danilenko also stated that ten boats would have been built for testing purposes by the end of the year.[38]

A few months later, Rosoboronexport also entered in the USV production. Rosoboronexport is the heavily sanctioned[39] sole state intermediary agency for Russia’s exports/imports of defence-related and dual-use products, technologies and services. Russian state firm unveiled its new USVs, respectively named Orcan and BEC-1000 at the International Maritime Defence Show (IMDS) ‘Fleet-2024’, held in Kronstadt (St Petersburg) in June 2024.[40] The BEC-1000 has a length of 6.2 m and a beam of 2.3 m, a maximum speed of 89 km/h (40 kn), a range of 500 km and can carry various types of payloads weighing up to one tonne,[41] while the Orcan has a length of 5.3 m and a beam of 1.7 m (see Figure 3).[42] In the same occasion, the sanctioned Concern Morinformsystem-Agat[43] presented its Labyrinth system, an almost 3 m long and 1.2 m wide platform devised for patrolling and video recording of sea terminals, oil depots, gas storage facilities, coal transshipment sites, fish farming areas, and border violations.[44]

Figure 3: Russian Orcan and Ukrainian Magura V3. [Giangiuseppe Pili]
Figure 3: Russian Orcan and Ukrainian Magura V3. [Giangiuseppe Pili]
Two months later, at the Armiya-2024 exhibition, the Orcan was again presented and rebranded as ‘Zefir’ and described as a minelaying system.[45] In the same occasion, the Design Bureau Center for Unmanned Systems (KB TsBS), a Rostec subsidiary,[46] revealed its Murena-300S design (Figure 4). The USV, similar in size to the Ukrainian models Magura V (Figure 2) and Sea Baby, has a top speed of (45 kn) and a range of 500 km. Interestingly, it mounts what could be a Starlink antenna defined by the manufacturer as “on-line Interference-proof GNSS”.[47] The Murena-300S is advertised for mine laying, mine clearance, patrolling, and reconnaissance.[48] In July 2025, an improved version of the Zefir was released with an enlarged forward hull, likely pointing to a ramming charge for offensive use.

 

In March 2025, the ANO ‘Centre for Unmanned Systems and Technologies’ delivered the first pre-production model of the new USV ‘Katran’,[49] ironically using the same name as another Ukrainian USV (see Figure 4).[50] According to the developer, there are two variants with different functions. The first one is intended as an OWA drone. The second one can have a wide range of payloads to perform extremely diverse tasks, including patrolling, security, radar surveillance, relaying, trawling, mining, search and rescue, and even evacuation operations.[51] The Katran is supposedly capable of carrying dozens of UAVs, with ranges of up to 200 km, and to support them by acting as a repeater for control signals.[52]

Figure 4: Murena-300S and Katran. [Giangiuseppe Pili]
Figure 4: Murena-300S and Katran. [Giangiuseppe Pili]
Russia has, then, already accumulated a substantial technological knowledge for what does it concerns the development of USVs. This should not be a surprise, especially considering how they suitable they are for integration within the current Russian Navy architecture.

Russian USVs: Showing potential but facing operational challenges

The Russian leadership is attempting to overcome severe limitations in shipbuilding and naval production capacity by partially turning to USVs. These systems fit perfectly within a constrained economic context: they are relatively low-cost, easy to produce at scale, and their lack of a crew makes them ideal for large-scale production and deployment, both as a force multiplier for the Russian Navy and as stand-alone weapon systems. Furthermore, continued technological advancement in this sector could enable the development of USVs armed with missiles or other offensive systems, allowing them to serve as platforms for short-range strikes against land targets. As Russia seeks to maintain arms exports, such an investment stream could also help sustain its strained economy.

However, several factors currently limit Moscow’s ability to effectively integrate USVs into its military operations. Despite being unmanned, USVs generally require remote control by specialised operators. Given the limited operational use of such drones, it is unlikely that the Russian Navy currently possesses a sufficient number of skilled personnel to perform these tasks at meaningful scale. Additionally, Russia lacks a reliable alternative to Starlink for secure and stable maritime communications. Moscow is developing Rassvet (ENG: ‘Dawn’), a satellite constellation intended as a substitute for Starlink, with the first satellites expected to launch by the end of 2025.[53] It remains unclear how long it will take before this system becomes fully capable of supporting military operations.

Lorenzo Piccioli, Giangiuseppe Pili

[1] MoD Russia, “Report by Russian Defence Ministry on progress of special military operation as of 28 August 2025”, Telegram post, 28/08/2025, https://t.me/mod_russia_en/22901, accessed on 28/08/205

[2] Ukrinform, “Окупанти уразили один з кораблів ВМС ЗСУ, один член екіпажу загинув”, Ukrinform, 28 08 2025, www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-ato/4030437-okupanti-urazili-odin-z-korabliv-vms-zsu-odin-clen-ekipazu-zaginuv.html, accessed on 28/08/2025

[3] MoD Russia, “Report by Russian Defence Ministry on progress of special military operation as of 28 August 2025”, Telegram post, 28/08/2025, https://t.me/mod_russia_en/22901, accessed on 28/08/205

[4] Khomenko, I. & Frolova, T., “Russia’s ‘Revolutionary’ Sea Drone Looks a Lot Like Ukraine’s—Now With Extra Boom”, UNITED24 Media, 27/07/2025, www.united24media.com/latest-news/russias-revolutionary-sea-drone-looks-a-lot-like-ukraines-now-with-extra-boom-10186, accessed on 29 August 2025.

[5] Shoaib, A., “A video appears to show a Russian drone boat attacking a key Ukrainian bridge”, Business Insider, 11/02/2023, www.businessinsider.com/video-russian-drone-boat-appears-attack-ukrainian-bridge-2023-2, accessed on 21 August 2025

[6] Hill, J., “Russian warship: Moskva sinks in Black Sea”, BBC News, 14/04/2022, www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-61114843, accessed on 29 August 2025

[7] Ozberk, T., “Analysis: Ukraine strikes with Kamikaze USVs – Russian bases are not safe anymore”, Naval News, 30/10/2022, www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2022/10/analysis-ukraine-strikes-with-kamikaze-usvs-russian-bases-are-not-safe-anymore/, accessed on 21 August 2025

[8] “Russian Ship Pavel Derzhavin ‘Damaged’ in Crimea After …”, Newsweek, 12/10/2023, www.newsweek.com/russia-black-sea-fleet-ship-damaged-pavel-derzhavin-1834163, accessed on 21 August 2025

[9] Lister, T., Butenko, V. & Nechyporenko, K., “Ukraine hits Russian oil tanker with sea drone hours after attacking naval base”, CNN, 05/08/2023, edition.cnn.com/2023/08/05/europe/ukraine‑sea‑drone‑attacks‑intl/index.html, accessed on 30 August 2025

[10] Felstead, P., “Ukrainians sink Russian missile corvette in USV attack”, European Security & Defence, 01/02/2024, euro‑sd.com/major‑news/36283/, accessed on 30 August 2025

[11] Ozberk, T., “Ukraine hits Russia’s Ropucha‑I class LST Caesar Kunikov with USV attack”, Naval News, 14/02/2024, www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2024/02/ukraine-hits-russias-ropucha-i-class-lst-caesar-kunikov-with-usv-attack/, accessed on 30 August 2025

[12] “Ukrainian drone boats destroy Russian helicopters in Black Sea clash”, Axios, 08/01/2025, www.axios.com/2025/01/08/ukraine-drones-usv-russia-helicopter, accessed on 30 August 2025

[13] “Ukraine intelligence agency says sea drones carried out Kerch Bridge attack”, The Guardian, 16/08/2023, www.theguardian.com/world/2023/aug/16/ukraine-intelligence-agency-says-sea-drones-carried-out-kerch-bridge-attack, accessed on 30 August 2025.

[14] Trofimov, Y.; Hinshaw, D.; Parkinson, J., “How Ukraine’s Naval Drones Turned the Tide in the Battle…”, The Wall Street Journal, 25/06/2024, www.wsj.com/world/naval-drones-innovation-warfare-ukraine-russia-ce35adfa, accessed on 30 August 2025

[15] Cook, E., “Russia Moving Black Sea Ships Highlights ‘Danger’ of Attacks on Crimea: UK”, Newsweek, 23/05/2024, www.newsweek.com/russia-moving-black-sea-ships-ukraine-strikes-crimea-tsiklon-1903944, accessed on 30 August 2025

[16] Sutton, H. I., “New Development In Black Sea, Russian Navy Using Base In Georgia”, Naval News, 10/07/2024, www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2024/07/first-russian-navy-ship-seen-in-base-in-abkhazi-separatist-region-of-georgia/, accessed on 30 August 2025

[17] Jankowicz, M., “Russia’s Black Sea Fleet is ‘functionally inactive’ after being pummeled hard by Ukraine, UK says”, Business Insider, 25/03/2024, www.businessinsider.com/russia-black-sea-fleet-functionally-inactive-after-ukraine-strikes-uk-2024-3, accessed on 30 August 2025

[18] Pili, G., “Sea drones at war: Tactical, operational and strategic analysis of maritime uncrewed systems”, European Security & Defence, 05/09/2024, euro‑sd.com/2024/09/articles/40191/sea‑drones‑at‑war‑tactical‑operational‑and‑strategic‑analysis‑of‑maritime‑uncrewed‑systems/, accessed on 30 August 2025

[19] Ryan, M., Russia’s Adaptation Advantage: Early in the War, Moscow Struggled to Shift Gears—but Now It’s Outlearning Kyiv, Foreign Affairs, 05/02/2024, www.foreignaffairs.com/ukraine/russias-adaptation-advantage, accessed on 30 August 2025

[20] Borsari, F., Adaptation Under Fire: Mass, Speed, and Accuracy Transform Russia’s Kill Chain in Ukraine, CEPA – Center for European Policy Analysis, 07/04/2025, cepa.org/comprehensive-reports/adaptation-under-fire-mass-speed-and-accuracy-transform-russias-kill-chain-in-ukraine/, accessed on 30 August 2025

[21] Hardie, J., “Russia announces plans to form Unmanned Systems Forces”, FDD’s Long War Journal, 20/12/2024, www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2024/12/russia-announces-plans-to-form-unmanned-systems-forces.php, accessed on 30 August 2025

[22] Rozouvan, T., “Russia establishes council for maritime, other unmanned systems”, Janes, 30/04/2025, www.janes.com/osint-insights/defence-news/air/russia‑establishes‑council‑for‑maritime‑other‑unmanned‑systems, accessed on 30 August 2025

[23] https://en.iz.ru/en/1884980/roman-krecul-bogdan-stepovoi/there-will-be-regiment-navy-creating-marine-parts-unmanned-systems

[24] Shumlyan’skyi, D., “Еволюція російських морських безпілотників та їхнє місце в російській армії”, Militarnyi, 06/08/2025, militarnyi.com/uk/articles/evolyutsiya-rosijskyh-morskyh-bezpilotnykiv-ta-yihnye-mistse-v-rosijskij-armiyi/, accessed on 15/09/2025

[25] Boyko, A., “Необитаемый катер «Искатель» придёт на смену французским MK2 на ВМФ России”, RobotRends.ru, 13/07/2017, robotrends.ru/pub/1728/neobitaemyy-kater-iskatel-pridet-na-smenu-francuzskim-mk2-na-vmf-rossii, accessed on 18/09/2025

[26] Boyko, A., “Военный робот-катамаран “Тритон” готовы разработать в концерне ‘Калашников’”, RobotRends.ru, 18/11/2016, robotrends.ru/pub/1646/voennyy-robot-katamaran-triton-gotovy-razrabotat-v-koncerne-kalashnikov, accessed on 18/09/2025

[27] “Russia to Test New Energy-Independent Drone Boat at Sea”, Mil.Today, https://mil.today/2018/Science25/, accessed on 19/09/2025

[28] “Russia to Test New Energy-Independent Drone Boat at Sea”, Mil.Today, https://mil.today/2018/Science25/, accessed on 19/09/2025

[29] Bendett, S., Boulègue, M., Connolly, R., Konaev, M., Podvig, P., Zysk, K., “Military robotics development”, Advanced Military Technology in Russia, Chatham House, 23 September 2021, chathamhouse.org/2021/09/advanced-military-technology-russia/05-military-robotics-development, accessed on 20/09/2025

[30] https://ofac.treasury.gov/recent-actions/20240612

[31] “Army‑2023: KMZ from Russia unveils new Unmanned Surface Vehicle”, Army Recognition, 17/08/2023, armyrecognition.com/archives/archives‑naval‑defense/naval‑defense‑2023/army‑2023‑kmz‑from‑russia‑unveils‑new‑unmanned‑surface‑vehicle, accessed on 30 August 2025

[32] Morris, N., “Russia unveils its newest USVs at the Fleet‑2024 International Maritime Defence Show”, EDR Magazine, 24/06/2024, www.edrmagazine.eu/russia-unveils-its-newest-usvs-at-the-fleet-2024-international-maritime-defence-show, accessed on 30 August 2025

[33] “Russian military may soon receive naval drones with 600 kg explosive payload”, Defense Express, 28/11/2023, en.defence‑ua.com/weapon_and_tech/russian_military_may_soon_receive_naval_drones_with_600_kg_explosive_payload‑8697.html, accessed on 30 August 2025

[34] “Russian military may soon receive naval drones with 600 kg explosive payload”, Defense Express, 28/11/2023, en.defence‑ua.com/weapon_and_tech/russian_military_may_soon_receive_naval_drones_with_600_kg_explosive_payload‑8697.html, accessed on 30 August 2025

[35] Sutton, H.I., “New Russian USV to counter Ukraine’s (BBKN ‘Dandelion’ USV)”, HiSutton.com, 14/12/2023, www.hisutton.com/Russia‑KMZ‑BBKN‑Dandelion‑USV.html, accessed on 30 August 2025

[36] “Первый российский морской дрон отправят на испытания в зону спецоперации”, RIA Novosti, 14/12/2023, ria.ru/20231214/dron‑1915668587.html, accessed on 30 August 2025

[37] However, these specifications are remarkably similar to those published for the RK-700 Vizir design. Hence, some experts suggest that this could be misleading or an error, see Sutton, H.I., “New Russian USV to counter Ukraine’s (BBKN ‘Dandelion’ USV)”, HiSutton.com, 14/12/2023, www.hisutton.com/Russia‑KMZ‑BBKN‑Dandelion‑USV.html, accessed on 30 August 2025

[38] “Первый российский морской дрон отправят на испытания в зону спецоперации”, RIA Novosti, 14/12/2023, ria.ru/20231214/dron‑1915668587.html, accessed on 30 August 2025

[39] For a comprehensive list of the sanctions imposed, see Sanctions related to ROSOBORONEKSPORT OAO – OpenSanctions

[40] Morris, N., “Russia unveils its newest USVs at the Fleet‑2024 International Maritime Defence Show”, EDR Magazine, 24/06/2024, www.edrmagazine.eu/russia-unveils-its-newest-usvs-at-the-fleet-2024-international-maritime-defence-show/, accessed on 30 August 2025

[41] Sutton , H.I., “Russia Shows New Naval Drones At FLOT 2024 Show”, HiSutton.com, 19/06/2024, http://www.hisutton.com/Russia-FLOT-2024.html, accessed on 30 August 2025

[42] Sutton , H.I., “Russia Shows New Naval Drones At FLOT 2024 Show”, HiSutton.com, 19/06/2024, http://www.hisutton.com/Russia-FLOT-2024.html, accessed on 30 August 2025

[43] https://www.opensanctions.org/entities/NK-kcv6RqVGDKbWMaXuKYcziS/adjacent/sanctions/

[44] https://aokmp.ru/army_kmp_2024/

[45] Sutton , H.I., “2 ‘new’ Russian USVs at ARMY 2024”, HiSutton.com, 19/06/2024, http://www.hisutton.com/Russia-USVs-ARMY-2024.html, accessed on 30 August 2025

[46] https://war-sanctions.gur.gov.ua/en/rostec/11711

[47] Sutton, H. I., “New Russian Navy ‘Murena’ Maritime Drone Shown With Possible Starlink”, Naval News, 13/08/2024, www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2024/08/new-russian-navy-murena-maritime-drone/, accessed on 20/09/2025

[48] Sutton, H. I., “New Russian Navy ‘Murena’ Maritime Drone Shown With Possible Starlink”, Naval News, 13/08/2024, www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2024/08/new-russian-navy-murena-maritime-drone/, accessed on 20/09/2025

[49] Sakvasin, A., “«Способен доставить десятки воздушных камикадзе»: разработчик — о боевом потенциале безэкипажного катера «Катран»”, Russia Today, 18/03/2025,  https://russian.rt.com/russia/article/1450072-katran-bek-flot-rossiya, accessed on 20/09/2025

[50] Syngaivska, S., “Ukrainian Developers Introduce the Katran Multifunctional Drone, Engineered for Maritime, Ground, and Aerial Engagements”, Defence Express, 25/03/2025, en.defence-ua.com/weapon_and_tech/ukrainian_developers_introduce_the_katran_multifunctional_drone_engineered_for_maritime_ground_and_aerial_engagements-13964.html, accessed on 20/09/2025

[51] Sakvasin, A., “«Способен доставить десятки воздушных камикадзе»: разработчик — о боевом потенциале безэкипажного катера «Катран»”, Russia Today, 18/03/2025,  https://russian.rt.com/russia/article/1450072-katran-bek-flot-rossiya, accessed on 20/09/2025

[52] Sakvasin, A., “«Способен доставить десятки воздушных камикадзе»: разработчик — о боевом потенциале безэкипажного катера «Катран»”, Russia Today, 18/03/2025,  https://russian.rt.com/russia/article/1450072-katran-bek-flot-rossiya, accessed on 20/09/2025

[53] “Russia to Launch Starlink Rival Later This Year, Roscosmos Chief Says”, The Moscow Times, 19/06/2025, www.themoscowtimes.com/2025/06/19/russia-to-launch-starlink-rival-later-this-year-roscosmos-chief-says-a89505, accessed on 31 August 2025