Air-to-ground precision munitions: A market overview

Demand for air-to-ground precision munitions continues to grow. Increasingly accurate and sophisticated systems are entering the market or being developed.

Conflicts of the past three decades have seen an exponential increase in reliance on air-to-ground precision guided munitions (in NATO parlance: A2G-PGMs). During Operation Desert Storm (1991), only 9% of air-dropped ordnance (calculated by tonnage) consisted of PGMs; half of these were laser-guided bombs, which accounted for 75% of strategic targets destroyed. During the first six weeks of the 2003 Iraq invasion, PGMs constituted 68% of deployed aerial ordnance. Between 2014 and 2021, nearly all combined forces air component ordnance released over Afghanistan, Iraq and Syria consisted of PGMs.[1]

The major categories of A2G-PGMs are air-launched cruise missiles (ALCM), conventional rocket-powered guided missiles, and guided bombs; the latter category can include glide bombs or gravity bombs equipped with guidance kits. Weapons in each category come in various sizes and with varying operational range.

Air-launched cruise missiles

ALCMs vary considerably in size, payload, and range. Smaller units are being developed for carriage on unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Given an increasing dependence on guided weapons, and the subsequent need for larger arsenals, governments and industry are also hoping to control costs by acquiring smaller missiles which can be built and used in greater quantities. However, designs on the larger side still remain the most highly-capable in this segment.

SPEAR Cap 3

MBDA-UK is developing the Select Precision Effects At Range Capability 3 (SPEAR Cap 3; also known as SPEAR 3), a 100 kg class cruise missile for the Royal Air Force (RAF). It is intended for carriage by the the F-35B Lightning II as part of the Block 4 upgrade, and was initially considered for integration with Eurofighter Typhoon, though more recently the UK Ministry of Defence (MoD) has stated that there is no requirement to integrate the weapon

Due to its small size (< 2 m in length, 180 mm diameter, and < 100 kg weight), the turbojet-powered weapon is considered a miniature cruise missile. According to the UK MoD, the weapon has a range of “more than 140 km”. The dimensions and weight will permit a loadout of two four-packs of SPEAR 3 internally in each of F-35’s weapons bays, for eight total, and an underwing three-pack has also been developed for when operational circumstances allow external carriage. The multi-mode seeker is understood to include a millimetre wave (MMW) active radar homing, infrared homing, and semi-active laser (SAL) guidance modes, allowing the user to select guidance modes depending on target type and mission. The precision effects warhead is suitable for attacking a wide variety of targets, with suppression of enemy air defence (SEAD) as a high-priority mission. The network-enabled SPEAR 3 can receive in-flight re-targeting and complete mission updates via data link. The weapon is designed to overcome sophisticated countermeasures and achieve a high probability of target destruction with low-collateral risk.

 

The first successful guided firing trial of the SPEAR 3 from an aircraft took place in mid-October 2024, at the Vidsel test range in Sweden, from a BAE Systems-operated Typhoon aircraft (which is somewhat ironic, given the UK’s lack of a Typhoon integration requirement). Full operational capability with the RAF is expected in 2028. While the RAF and the Italian Navy plan to operate the weapon from the F-35B, other nations such as Germany, Italy, and Saudi Arabia have shown an interest in deploying the SPEAR 3 on the Typhoon.

Storm Shadow/SCALP

The Anglo-French Storm Shadow cruise missile, designated the Système de Croisière Autonome à Longue Portée – Emploi Général (SCALP-EG) in France is a cruise missile weighing 1,300 kg and measuring 5.1 m in length. It is certified for carriage on a wide variety of European fighter aircraft and Ukraine together with its allies even managed to integrate it with modified Su-24 aircraft. First used by the UK in 2003 as part of Operation TELIC (and later formally accepted into service in October 2004), it has been procured by the air forces of the UK, France, and Italy among others. Battle proven through extensive use in Ukraine and other conflicts, the Storm Shadow is optimised for long-range deep strike missions against fixed or stationary targets. While commonly reported to have a range of 250 km, specialist estimates frequently cite a maximum range of around 560 km, which appears well-founded given that even the RAF previously cited a range of over 300 NM (556 km) before this figure was removed. The missile uses a Safran TR60-30 engine, propelling it to speeds of Mach 0.8.

The missile uses a multi-mode navigation system, with in-built inertial navigation system (INS), global navigation satellite system (GNSS) and terrain reference navigation (TRN) system. These are used to guide the missile close to its target. For terminal guidance, the system is equipped with an imaging infrared (IIR) seeker, with automatic target recognition (ATR) capability. Near the pre-programmed coordinates the missile pops up from its low-level flight to provide a better angle for both target identification and penetration, and in the process jettisons the nose cover to expose the missile’s imaging infrared (IIR) seeker. The seeker is capable of automatic target recognition (ATR), and once it has located its target and matched this with the stored target image, the missile then enters a steep dive onto the target. The 450 kg BROACH (Bomb Royal Ordnance Augmented Charge) tandem warhead is effective against hardened high-value targets, and operators can choose between airburst, impact and penetration modes depending on the tactical scenario.

In April 2024, then UK Defence Minister Grant Shapps announced plans to expand Storm Shadow production, citing its “extraordinary” performance in Ukraine. The missile, which was developed jointly by what are now MBDA’s UK and France divisions, entered a mid-life refurbishment cycle in 2017. This extends the service life to 2032 by ensuring the weapon remains effective against evolving threats. Ultimately it will be replaced by the ‘TP15’ design being developed by MBDA under the future cruise/anti-ship weapon (FC/ASW; also known as SPEAR Cap 5) programme, with a planned service entry in the early 2030s. TP15 is one of two designs being developed under FC/ASW, and represents the low-observable design; the other is a high-speed design known as RJ10, and is broadly intended for use in scenarios where speed is a greater priority than low-observability.

Taurus KEPD-350

The Target Adaptive Unitary & Dispenser Robotic Ubiquity System/Kinetic Energy Penetration Destroyer (Taurus KEPD 350) is produced by Taurus Systems GmbH (TSG), a joint venture of MBDA Deutschland and Saab Dynamics. It shares many similarities to Storm Shadow, and fills the same role for Germany. The 5.1 m long, 1,360 kg cruise missile is powered by a Williams P8300-15 turbofan engine which enables high-subsonic speeds of Mach 0.95. As with the Storm Shadow, there is a gulf between the claimed maximum range, at 500 km, and specialist estimates, which cite a maximum range of 700 km. The combination of radar absorbent coating, curved air intakes, terrain-hugging flight tactics and electronic countermeasures minimise detection risk, enabling penetration capability through air defence networks. The Tri-Tec multi-mode navigation system utilises INS, GNSS, and TRN supported by a radar altimeter, and is fully functional in GPS-denied scenarios. For terminal guidance, the Taurus KEPD 350 uses an IIR seeker, with target identification conducted by matching the seeker’s view of the target to on-board stored imagery of the target.

The weapon system is designed for deep-strike missions against static, hardened targets. Much like the Storm Shadow’s BROACH warhead, the Taurus’ 481 kg MEPHISTO tandem warhead combines a precursor shaped charge capable of breaching solid obstacles, and a kinetic penetrating main charge. Taken in combination, these two warheads enable the weapon to penetrate deeply-buried targets. These capabilities are then further expanded by the sophisticated programmable fuze on the main charge. Alongside an air-bust mode for engaging surface targets, the fuze has a time delay mode, along with void sensing and layer-counting capabilities. Together, these latter three fuzing capabilities enable the main charge to detonate on a pre-selected floor of a multi-story underground bunker, for instance.

The Taurus KEPD 350 entered service with the German Luftwaffe in 2005, operating from the Tornado IDS variant. Subsequently Spain acquired the cruise missile for its EF-18 Hornet, while the Republic of Korea (RoK) adopted the Taurus KEPD-350K variant for the F-15K fighter, with navigation and targeting systems adapted to Korean requirements. Additionally, TSG offers the export variant KEPD-350E which retains most attributes of the original missile, but can be readily adapted to additional aircraft including the Eurofighter Typhoon, JAS39 Gripen, F-16 Fighting Falcon and F-35 Lightning II.

Several maintenance and upgrade programmes have been agreed upon in recent years, beginning with the 2018 contract between TSG and the Spanish MoD. As announced by TSG, this process will fortify and improve the navigation system, further enhancing the weapon’s survivability in highly defended modern scenarios and joint operations environments. In October 2023, TSG and the South Korean firm LIG Nex1 signed a Memorandum of Understanding to jointly develop an adapted variant of the KEPD-350K. This locally-built KEPD 350K 2 will be slightly shorter and, at 907 kg, lighter than the original missile. It will be compatible with the RoK’s new FA-50 light fighter. There has been speculation that the original navigation and guidance systems, warhead, and turbofan engine might be substituted for locally-developed technology in order to free the RoK from European and US export restrictions.

Finally, in December 2024, TSG and the German armed forces signed a maintenance and modernisation agreement intended to keep the Taurus operationally relevant through 2045. In the context of this agreement, on 3 March 2025 Saab announced that it had received the order to actually carry out the significant system upgrades and modernisation efforts as well as lifecycle maintenance. The contract period runs from 2025 to 2035.

JASSM

The AGM-158 Joint Air-to-Surface Standoff Missile (JASSM) entered service with the US armed forces in 2001, with a claimed range of over 370 km, but often assessed in specialist sources to be around 531 km. Subsequently, this was developed into the currently produced AGM-158B JASSM-ER (Extended Range) variant, introduced in 2014. The weapon, developed by Lockheed Martin, utilises various low-observability technologies (including radar absorbing materials, a trapezoidal cross-section and angular nose to decrease the amount of energy reflected back to emitting radars, and infrared signature reduction measures). This allows it to fly at higher altitudes than most cruise missiles, although it can also perform extremely low terrain following flight as well. It has a stated range of over 926 km and carries a 454 kg penetrating warhead with a blast fragmentation capability, suitable for engaging hardened fixed targets as well as relocatable targets. It can be deployed from fighter and bomber aircraft. The concept of operations as described by the USAF is focused on striking high-value, heavily defended targets.

Since its introduction, JASSM-ER has continued to be further developed, with the introduction of incremental upgrades. In 2022, the USAF awarded Lockheed Martin a non-competitive development contract for the AGM-158B-2 model, which is aimed at addressing obsolescence issues, and includes a modernised Missile Control Unit, enhanced software, and greater resistance to jamming and spoofing in the form of the JASSM GPS Anti-jam Receiver and anti-Spoofing (JAGR-S) V5 receiver variant. The later AGM-158B-3 model introduced an M-Code GPS receiver, and the most recent AGM-158D model added various radio frequency (RF) equipment, line of site (LoS) and beyond line of site (BLoS) weapons data links, and associated antennas to support in-flight target updates. It is designed to continually improve capabilities through future planned software and hardware upgrades.

In September 2024, Lockheed Martin unveiled the JASSM-XR (Extreme Range) during the Air, Space & Cyber 2024 conference. The new weapon retains the shape and low-observability aspects of JASSM-ER, but displays larger dimensions and greater weight. This means carriage of more fuel to achieve greater range. While the firm declines to state specifics, there is widespread speculation that the XR variant could achieve a range of up to 1,600 km. Operationally, this stand-off range would permit aircraft to conduct more sorties per day while safely outside enemy air defence zones; this would be especially beneficial in scenarios involving major peer- or near-peer opponents such as China or Russia. To date, Lockheed is developing the XR with its own funds, to position itself if and when the Pentagon should express interest in the new variant. The firm said that flight testing could

begin in 2026, but the system is still several years away from production maturity.

Guided missiles

Rocket-powered missiles are frequently shorter-range than equivalent size and weight cruise missiles, although there are some exceptions. While typically shorter-range, however, many missiles using rocket propulsion typically achieve high supersonic speeds; by contrast their air-breathing counterparts are typically subsonic – however, there too are exceptions to that rule.

GATR/Euro-GATR

The Guided Advanced Tactical Rocket (GATR) was developed jointly by Elbit Systems and the then Orbital ATK (now part of Northrop Grumman), with initial flight testing beginning in 2008. The system pairs 70 mm rockets with a SAL targeting system, enabling rotary and light fixed-wing aircraft to conduct precision strikes at ranges of up to 10 km. Targets can be laser designated before or after launch, which the company equates to lock-on before launch (LOBL) or lock-on after launch (LOAL) modes. The multipurpose penetrator (MPP) warhead can engage light-armoured vehicles, semi-hardened bunkers and other structures. Through an impact and time delay fuze, the MPP can penetrate up to 200 mm of reinforced concrete, and then detonate the warhead once past the wall. A major advantage of GATR is the low cost of the 70 mm projectile compared to other PGMs.

The concept continues to be developed. In March 2025, Elbit and Diehl Defence signed a cooperative agreement to market the Euro-GATR, with an initial eye to arming the German armed forces’ H145M light combat helicopter. The GATR variants are compatible with a number of existing 70 mm rocket launcher systems with little to no modification; depending on the system, a single launcher can accommodate up to 19 rockets, providing combat helicopters a significant tactical load out.

SiAW

Leveraging their work on the AGM-88G AARGM-ER, Northrop Grumman has been developing the Stand-in Attack Weapon (SiAW). This can be thought of as a derivative of AARGM-ER which is capable of engaging a broader target set. USAF awarded Northrop Grumman Corporation the contract for Phase 1 of the programme in June 2022. A follow-on award in September 2023 for Phase 2 encompassed further development of the weapon, platform integration and completion of the flight test program for rapid prototyping, with the goal of rapid fielding. Phase 2 has a 36 month timeline, and is divided into two main increments: As described by Northrop Grumman, Phase 2.1 concludes with a guided vehicle flight test; Phase 2.2 concludes with three additional flight tests and the delivery to the USAF of SiAW leave-behind prototype missiles and test assets. The first prototype weapon was delivered to the military in November 2024. The first test release of a jettison test vehicle – a weapon demonstrator without a motor or electronics – was conducted by the USAF on 7 November 2024 to ensure that the missile will separate safely from an aircraft. The USAF envisions an initial operational capability (IOC) in 2026.

The current focus for SiAW is internal carriage by the F-35A, although USAF has spoken of “future stealth aircraft” as potential platforms. This could conceivably include the B-21 bomber or unmanned combat aircraft. According to USAF’s 2025 budget request, SiAW will be deployed against “rapidly relocatable targets that create the Anti-Access/Area Denial (A2/AD) environment [including] Theater Ballistic Missile Launchers, Land Attack and Anti-Ship Cruise Missile Launchers, Jammers, Anti-Satellite Systems, and Integrated Air Defense Systems”. According to available information, the weapon is understood to also use the INS-assisted GNSS, and multi-mode radar seeker with passive and MMW active modes from AARGM-ER, though it is not entirely clear whether changes to this arrangement are envisioned. The objective range is classified, but officials have in the past suggested AARGM-ER has an improvement of up to 50% over the AGM-88E; this would imply a circa 200 km range.

Rampage

The Rampage was developed by Israel Military Industries (IMI, acquired by Elbit Systems in 2018) and the state-owned Israel Aerospace Industries. It is based on the IMI/Elbit EXTRA ground-launched guided rocket artillery munition, and can be considered the air-launched variant. The 580 kg missile is 4.7 m long, and 306 mm in diameter. According to a December 2024 Elbit statement, the Rampage precision ballistic missile can achieve speeds around Mach 5; this is a significant increase over the declared speeds of Mach 1.6 in prior years – though it is also possible to two figures respectively represent maximum and average speeds. Rampage features a jamming-resistant INS/GNSS guidance system. The combination blast fragmentation/ground penetrating warhead permits flexible targeting. Elbit has not published the precise range, but emphases that the aerial release (at altitudes up to 12,192 m) considerably extends the missile’s range beyond the 150 km possible for the ground-launched EXTRA, with some sources citing an effective range of around 250 km.

The missile is primarily designed to combat long-range surface-to-air missile systems and anti-aircraft batteries deep within enemy territory, but can also neutralise other high-value targets such as bunkers, command centres or airfields. It can be deployed from various tactical aircraft, with a potential load out of four missiles. Rampage is in service with the Israeli and Indian air forces, and is being acquired by Greece.

Guidance kits, glide bombs, and beyond

For many years, air forces have turned to guidance kits to improve the accuracy of common unguided gravity bombs, perhaps most well-known among which are the JDAM and Paveway series kits. These have often provided a relatively cost-effective alternative to bespoke guided munitions. Over time, these have also evolved to include folding wings, to provide glide capability in addition to guidance, thereby increasing their effective range. In recent years, this concept has been taken further to include purpose-built gliding munition designs rather than kits, along with more sophisticated guidance, and even powered flight – moving such weapons into territory traditionally occupied by other munitions.

GBU-53/B StormBreaker

A example of a modern purpose-built glide bomb is the GBU-53/B StormBreaker (also known as the Small Diameter Bomb II), which is already in service with USAF and the USN. Foreign military sales to several NATO partners have also been approved, all to be eventually deployed on those nations’ F-35s. Integration on the F-15E was achieved in 2018, with IOC declared in 2022, while early operational capability (EOC) was declared for the F/A-18E/F in November 2023. IOC on the F/A-18E/F and on the F-35B/C variants is anticipated in 2025 and 2026, respectively.

The 93 kg weapon carries a 48 kg multi-purpose shaped charge/fragmentation warhead which can engage both armoured and soft targets. Operational testing has verified lethality against main battle tanks, infantry fighting vehicles, anti-aircraft guns and missile launchers, and small patrol boats. The munition’s small size permits sorties with considerably larger load outs compared to heavier ordnance. The F-15E has the largest load potential at up to 28 StormBreakers, while the F-35 can carry eight internally, while remaining low-observable.

 

The GBU-53/B is equipped with GPS/INS navigation and a tri-mode (SAL, IIR, MMW active radar) seeker that allows target tracking in low-visibility conditions including rain, fog, smoke and sand. A two-way encrypted datalink permits mid-flight target updates from airborne sources or ground controllers. The glide bomb achieves a range of 110 km against stationary targets and 72 km against moving targets. In February 2025, Raytheon confirmed that it was internally financing development of a powered version of this glide bomb, using an air breathing engine to significantly enhance its range. The company did not provide a timeline for development and testing.

PJDAM

The USAF is pursuing the Extended Range Attack Munition (ERAM) programme, which aims to develop a relatively low-cost air-launched munition which can be readily mass-produced. While originally stated to be aimed at supporting Ukraine’s war effort, it is will likely to find applications elsewhere. Regardless of the future of US support for Ukraine amid the current political climate, it seems likely that the USAF will continue the development programme to accommodate future US needs; the basic ERAM programme has already been expanded to include development of anti-ship and anti-drone variants.

The RfI was posted by the Air Force Materiel Command in January 2024, followed by an RfP in June 2024. According to the USAF, the programme is currently in Phase 1 of three planned phases which are expected to run through July 2029. The 16 firms which responded to the RFI were eligible to participate under the RfP, although the USAF has not released the identity of participating contractors. The weapon is conceived as a reasonably low-cost system which can be produced at a rate of more than 1,000 units yearly. The target parameters include a range of 400 km, Mach 0.6 speed, a 230 kg blast/fragmentation payload with some penetration capability, INS guidance for operating in GPS-denied conditions, and a 10 m CEP.

The requirements broadly match the capabilities of Boeing’s Powered Joint Direct Attack Munition (PJDAM), which is essentially a guidance/glide kit for a Mk 82 227 kg (500 lb) gravity bomb, powered by Kratos’ TDI-J85 turbojet engine. According to Boeing, the PJDAM is capable of attaining a range of over 556 km, which could be extended to over 1,296 km if the payload is swapped out for a fuel tank – however in the latter configuration the PJDAM would be limited to functioning as a decoy.

Higher standards

PGMs have become de rigeur in modern warfare. Recent conflicts – especially the war in Ukraine – have shown that they will be required in very large numbers in any major conflict. While some very high-performance systems can be reserved for high-value or time-sensitive targets, there is increasing demand for PGMs which – by size and by cost – can be deployed in large numbers. Advances in AI, propulsion technology, and stealth capabilities will enable larger arsenals which display steadily increasing performance, from enhanced survivability and range to sophisticated capabilities such as swarming attacks. The boundaries between PGMs and one-way attack (OWA) UAVs are already beginning to blur, a trend which is likely to increase in the near future.

Sidney E. Dean

[1] John Tirpak, Desert Storm’s Unheeded Lessons, Air & Space Forces, Dec. 2022; Gregory Ball, “2003 – Operation Iraqi Freedom” Factsheet, Air Force Historical Support Division; John Hoehn, Precision Guided Munitions, CRS Report R45996 (Dec. 2021)